Table of Contents
Writing Style
Signposting
In academic writing, the author is responsible for making the text as clear as possible for the reader. To achieve clarity, the author has to ensure that the writing is explicit: in other words, it should anticipate and address the reader’s questions. An active reader will want to know what the author’s aims are and how they will be achieved; what the author’s position is about key issues; how the argument is constructed; how ideas relate to each other. Good writers use signposting language to signal to the reader where these answers can be found.
It is useful to divide signposting language into two broad categories:
major signposts that signal key aspects of the work, such as purpose, structure, author’s stance, main points, direction of the argument, conclusions.
linking words and phrases that show connections between sentences and paragraphs.
Examples of major signposts:
The aim of this study is to …. The purpose of this thesis is to…. This essay argues that …. The main questions addressed in this paper are …. This essay critically examines…. The above discussion raises some interesting questions. This paper begins by …. It will then go on to …. Finally, …. This chapter reviews the literature …. In conclusion, ….
Examples of linking words and phrases:
Listing: first(ly), … / second(ly), … / finally, … / Indicating addition or similarity: also, … / besides, … / in addition, … / furthermore, … / as well / similarly, … Indicating contrast: however, … / nevertheless, … / on the other hand, … / Giving a reason: for this reason, … / because … / because of …/ due to … Indicating result or consequence: therefore, … / thus, … / as a result, … / consequently, … Reformulating an idea: in other words, … / to put it simply, … / that is ... Exemplifying: for example, … / for instance, … / to exemplify, …
Hedging
In academic writing, claims are often couched in cautious or tentative language. This is known as ‘hedging’. Compare these two sentences:
Water shortages trigger conflict between nations. Water shortages may trigger conflict between nations.
The first sentence indicates a high level of certainty; indeed, the claim, or assertion, is presented as a fact. The second sentence, on the other hand, is more tentative, suggesting that conflict will occur in certain circumstances or under certain conditions, but not necessarily in every case.
As the example above illustrates, the use of hedging enables the writer to make claims that are proportionate to the evidence available at the time of writing. In other words, hedging language helps to make statements as accurate as possible. Since there is a wide range of hedging words and phrases, it is important to choose one that reflects the strength of the supporting evidence. The use of the word ‘probably’ in the sentence below indicates that the evidence is fairly strong. In the second sentence, the more tentative word ‘could’ was selected, indicating that the evidence is weak.
The fire was probably caused by a fault in the engine temperature gauge. The fire could have been caused by a fault in the engine temperature gauge.
Paying due attention to accuracy helps to avoid, or at least reduce, criticism of your work.
Hedging is also used to mitigate criticism of other authors’ work, as in the examples below:
Johnson (2007) appears to ignore the adverse psychological side-effects of this approach. The risks of the new vaccine may have been overstated.
Hedging language
A wide range of words and phrases can be used in hedging:
Modal auxiliary verbs: can, could, may, might, should, would Other modal verbs: appear, look, seem, tend Probability adjectives: likely, possible, probable, unlikely Probability adverbs: perhaps, possibly, probably, presumably Frequency adverbs: generally, usually, often, occasionally, seldom
